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La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Thomas Kuhn

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Thomas Kuhn frasi celebri

“Gli scienziati non mirano neanche, di norma, ad inventare nuove teorie, e anzi spesso si mostrano intolleranti verso quelle inventate da altri.”

Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

1999, p. 44
La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

“[Nel processo di scelta tra teorie nessuno] Ha la possibilità di impiegare un argomento che rassomigli a una dimostrazione nella logica e nella matematica formale. In queste ultime, tanto le persone che le regole di inferenza sono stipulate in precedenza. Se non c'è accordo sulle conclusioni, le parti che prendono parte al dibattito possono ritornare sui propri passi uno per uno, controllando ciascuno sulla base delle precedenti stipulazioni. Alla fine di questo processo una o l'altra delle parti deve ammettere che in un punto bene individuabile del ragionamento ha commesso uno sbaglio, ha violato ed applicato male una regola accettata in precedenza. Una volta ammesso questo, non c'è più appello e la prova fornita dagli oppositori è decisiva. Solo se le due parti scoprono invece che divergono sul significato o sull'applicabilità di una regola concordata in precedenza, cioè che il loro accordo precedente non forniva una base adeguata per la dimostrazione, allora il dibattito rassomiglierà a ciò che inevitabilmente ha luogo nella scienza.”

Thomas Kuhn

da Riflessioni sui miei critici, in I. Lakatos e A. Musgrave, Critica e crescita della conoscenza, Feltrinelli, Milano 1976; citato in Patrizia de Mennato, La ricerca "partigiana". Teoria di ricerca creativa, Libreria CUEM, Milano 1994

“Guardando la fotografia di una camera a bolle, lo studente vede soltanto linee confuse e interrotte, mentre il fisico vi legge la registrazione di eventi subnucleari a lui familiari. Soltanto quando il suo modo di vedere le cose ha subito trasformazioni di questo genere lo studente entra a far parte del mondo dello scienziato, riesce a vedere le cose che lui vede e a reagire come lui.”

Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

2009, p. 140
La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Thomas Kuhn: Frasi in inglese

“In science, as in the playing card experiment, novelty emerges only with difficulty, manifested by resistance, against a background provided by expectation.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), VI. Anomaly and the Emergence of Scientific Discoveries, p. 64 (2012 ed.)

“Scientific revolutions are inaugurated by a growing sense… that an existing paradigm has ceased to function adequately in the exploration of an aspect of nature to which that paradigm itself had previously led the way.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), VII. Crisis and the Emergence of Scientific Theories, p. 91 (2012 ed.)

“Men whose research is based on shared paradigms are committed to the same rules and standards for scientific practice. That commitment and the apparent consensus it produces are prerequisites for normal science, i. e., for the genesis and continuation of a particular research tradition.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), II. The Route to Normal Science, p. 11 (2012 ed.)

“"Normal science" means research firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements, achievements that some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time as supplying the foundation for its further practice”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), II. The Route to Normal Science, p. 10

“To my complete surprise, that exposure to out-of-date scientific theory and practice radically undermined some of my basic conceptions about the nature of science and the reasons for its special success.
Those conceptions were ones I had previously drawn partly from scientific training itself and partly from a long-standing avocational interest in the philosophy of science. Somehow, whatever their pedagogic utility and their abstract plausibility, those notions did not at all fit the enterprise that historical study displayed. Yet they were and are fundamental to many discussions of science, and their failures of verisimilitude therefore seemed thoroughly worth pursuing. The result was a drastic shift in my career plans, a shift from physics to history of science and then, gradually, from relatively straightforward historical problems back to the more philosophical concerns that had initially led me to history.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), Preface

“Out-of-date theories are not in principle unscientific because they have been discarded. That choice, however, makes it difficult to see scientific development as a process of accretion.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), I. Introduction: A Role of History

“Somehow, the practice of astronomy, physics, chemistry or biology normally fails to evoke the controversies over fundamentals that today seem endemic among, say, psychologists or sociologists. Attempting to discover the source of that difference led me to recognize the role in scientific research of what I have since called “paradigms.” These I take to be universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions for a community of practitioners.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), Preface, p. xiii (2012 ed.)

“These examples point to the third and most fundamental aspect of the incommensurability of competing paradigms. In a sense that I am unable to explicate further, the proponents of competing paradigms practice their trades in different worlds. One contains constrained bodies that fall slowly, the other pendulums that repeat their motions again and again. In one, solutions are compounds, in the other mixtures. One is embedded in a flat, the other in a curved, matrix of space. Practicing in different worlds, the two groups of scientists see different things when they look from the same point in the same direction. Again, that is not to say that they can see anything they please. Both are looking at the world, and what they look at has not changed. But in some areas they see different things, and they see them in different relations one to the other. That is why a law that cannot even be demonstrated to one group of scientists may occasionally seem intuitively obvious to another.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), XII. The Resolution of Revolutions, p. 149

“History, if viewed as a repository for more than anecdote or chronology, could produce a decisive transformation in the image of science by which we are now possessed.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), I. Introduction: A Role of History

“Ever since prehistoric antiquity one field of study after another has crossed the divide between what the historian might call its prehistory as a science and its history proper. These transitions to maturity have seldom been so sudden or so unequivocal as my necessarily schematic discussion may have implied. But neither have they been historically gradual, coextensive, that is to say, with the entire development of the fields within which they occurred.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), II. The Route to Normal Science, p. 22 (2012 ed.)

“Philosophers of science have repeatedly demonstrated that more than one theoretical construction can always be placed upon a given collection of data. History of science indicates that, particularly in the early developmental stages of a new paradigm, it is not even very difficult to invent such alternates. But that invention of alternates is just what scientists seldom undertake except during the pre-paradigm stage of their science’s development and at very special occasions during its subsequent evolution. So long as the tools a paradigm supplies continue to prove capable of solving the problems it defines, science moves fastest and penetrates most deeply through confident employment of those tools. The reason is clear. As in manufacture so in science—retooling is an extravagance to be reserved for the occasion that demands it. The significance of crises is the indication they provide that an occasion for retooling has arrived.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), VII. Crisis and the Emergence of Scientific Theories, p. 76 (2012 ed.)

“Few people who are not actually practitioners of a mature science realize how much mop-up work of this sort a paradigm leaves to be done or quite how fascinating such work can prove in the execution.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), III. The Nature of Normal Science, p. 24 (2012 ed.)

“Normal science, the activity in which most scientists inevitably spend almost all their time, is predicated on the assumption that the scientific community knows what the world is like. Normal science often suppresses fundamental novelties because they are necessarily subversive of its basic commitments.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), I. Introduction: A Role of History, p. 5

“I rapidly discovered that Aristotle had known almost no mechanics at all. … How could his characteristic talents have deserted him so systematically when he turned to the study of motion and mechanics? Equally, if his talents had so deserted him, why had his writings in physics been taken so seriously for so many centuries after his death? … I was sitting at my desk with the text of Aristotle's Physics open in front of me… Suddenly the fragments in my head sorted themselves out in a new way, and fell into place together. My jaw dropped, for all at once Aristotle seemed a very good physicist indeed, but of a sort I'd never dreamed possible. Now I could understand why he had said what he'd said, and what his authority had been. Statements that had previously seemed egregious mistakes, now seemed at worst near misses within a powerful and generally successful tradition. That sort of experience -- the pieces suddenly sorting themselves out and coming together in a new way -- is the first general characteristic of revolutionary change that I shall be singling out after further consideration of examples. Though scientific revolutions leave much piecemeal mopping up to do, the central change cannot be experienced piecemenal, one step at a time. Instead, it involves some relatively sudden and unstructured transformation in which some part of the flux of experience sorts itself out differently and displays patterns that were not visible before.”

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Thomas Kuhn

Origine: The Road Since Structure (2002), p. 16-17; from "What Are Scientific Revolutions?" (1982)

“Only when they must choose between competing theories do scientists behave like philosophers.”

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Thomas Kuhn

Thomas Kuhn (1970) in Logic of Discovery or Psychology of Research?, edited by [Imre Lakatos, Alan Musgrave, Criticism and the growth of knowledge, Cambridge University Press, 1970, 0521096235, 7]

“We must now ask how changes of this sort can come about, considering first discoveries, or novelties of fact, and then inventions, or novelties of theory. That distinction between discovery and invention or between fact and theory will, however, immediately prove to be exceedingly artificial.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), VI. Anomaly and the Emergence of Scientific Discoveries, p. 52 (2012 ed.)

“By now it may be clear that the position I'm developing is a sort of post-Darwinian Kantianism.”

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Thomas Kuhn

Origine: The Road Since Structure (2002), p. 104; from "The Road since Structure" (1990)

“The subject of a gestalt demonstration knows that his perception has shifted because he can make it shift back and forth repeatedly while he holds the same book or piece of paper in his hands. Aware that nothing in his environment has changed, he directs his attention increasingly not to the figure (duck or rabbit) but to the lines of the paper he is looking at. Ultimately he may even learn to see those lines without seeing either of the figures, and he may then say (what he could not legitimately have said earlier) that it is these lines that he really sees but that he sees them alternately as a duck and as a rabbit. …As in all similar psychological experiments, the effectiveness of the demonstration depends upon its being analyzable in this way. Unless there were an external standard with respect to which a switch of vision could be demonstrated, no conclusion about alternate perceptual possibilities could be drawn.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), X. Revolutions as Changes of World View, p. 114 (3rd edn.)

“Normal science, the puzzle-solving activity we have just examined, is a highly cumulative enterprise, eminently successful in its aim, the steady extension of the scope and precision of scientific knowledge. In all these respects it fits with great precision the most usual image of scientific work. Yet one standard product of the scientific enterprise is missing. Normal science does not aim at novelties of fact or theory and, when successful, finds none.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), VI. Anomaly and the Emergence of Scientific Discoveries, p. 52

“We may, to be more precise, have to relinquish the notion, explicit or implicit, that changes of paradigm carry scientists and those who learn from them closer and closer to the truth”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), XIII. Progress Through Revolutions, p. 170

“These three classes of problems—determination of significant fact, matching of facts with theory, and articulation of theory—exhaust, I think, the literature of normal science, both empirical and theoretical. They do not, of course, quite exhaust the entire literature of science. There are also extraordinary problems, and it may well be their resolution that makes the scientific enterprise as a whole so particularly worthwhile. But extraordinary problems are not to be had for the asking. They emerge only on special occasions prepared by the advance of normal research.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), III. The Nature of Normal Science, p. 34 (2012 ed.)

“In the development of any science, the first received paradigm is usually felt to account quite successfully for most of the observations and experiments easily accessible to that science’s practitioners. Further development, therefore, ordinarily calls for the construction of elaborate equipment, the development of an esoteric vocabulary and skills, and a refinement of concepts that increasingly lessens their resemblance to their usual common-sense prototypes. That professionalization leads, on the one hand, to an immense restriction of the scientist’s vision and to a considerable resistance to paradigm change. The science has become increasingly rigid. On the other hand, within those areas to which the paradigm directs the attention of the group, normal science leads to a detail of information and to a precision of the observation-theory match that could be achieved in no other way.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), VI. Anomaly and the Emergence of Scientific Discoveries, p. 64 (2012 ed.)

“Scientists work from models acquired through education and through subsequent exposure to the literature often without quite knowing or needing to know what characteristics have given these models the status of community paradigms”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), V. The Priority of Paradigms, p. 46

“The scientific enterprise as a whole does from time to time prove useful, open up new territory, display order, and test long-accepted belief. Nevertheless, the individual engaged on a normal research problem is almost never doing any one of these things. Once engaged, his motivation is of a rather different sort. What then challenges him is the conviction that, if only he is skillful enough, he will succeed in solving a puzzle that no one before has solved or solved so well.”

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Origine: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), IV. Normal Science as Puzzle-solving, p. 38.

“A scientific theory is usually felt to be better than its predecessors not only in the sense that it is a better instrument for discovering and solving puzzles but also because it is somehow a better representation of what nature is really like. One often hears that successive theories grow ever closer to, or approximate more and more closely to, the truth. Apparently generalizations like that refer not to the puzzle-solutions and the concrete predictions derived from a theory but rather to its ontology, to the match, that is, between the entities with which the theory populates nature and what is “really there.””

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Thomas Kuhn libro La struttura delle rivoluzioni scientifiche

Perhaps there is some other way of salvaging the notion of ‘truth’ for application to whole theories, but this one will not do. There is, I think, no theory-independent way to reconstruct phrases like ‘really there’; the notion of a match between the ontology of a theory and its “real” counterpart in nature now seems to me illusive in principle. Besides, as a historian, I am impressed with the implausability of the view. I do not doubt, for example, that Newton’s mechanics improves on Aristotle’s and that Einstein’s improves on Newton’s as instruments for puzzle-solving. But I can see in their succession no coherent direction of ontological development. On the contrary, in some important respects, though by no means in all, Einstein’s general theory of relativity is closer to Aristotle’s than either of them is to Newton’s.
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), Postscript (1969)